Number Of Flowers Research Articles

Strigolactones promote flowering by inducing the miR319-LA-SFT module in tomato

Strigolactones are a class of phytohormones with various functions in plant development, stress responses, and in the interaction with (micro)organisms in the rhizosphere. While their effects on vegetative development are well studied, little is known about their role in reproduction. We investigated the effects of genetic and chemical modification of strigolactone levels on the timing and intensity of flowering in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and the molecular mechanisms underlying such effects. Results showed that strigolactone levels in the shoot, whether endogenous or exogenous, correlate inversely with the time of anthesis and directly with the number of flowers and the transcript levels of the florigen-encoding gene SINGLE FLOWER TRUSS (SFT) in the leaves. Transcript quantifications coupled with metabolite analyses demonstrated that strigolactones promote flowering in tomato by inducing the activation of the microRNA319-LANCEOLATE module in leaves. This, in turn, decreases gibberellin content and increases the transcription of SFT. Several other floral markers and morpho-anatomical features of developmental progression are induced in the apical meristems upon treatment with strigolactones, affecting floral transition and, more markedly, flower development. Thus, strigolactones promote meristem maturation and flower development via the induction of SFT both before and after floral transition, and their effects are blocked in plants expressing a miR319-resistant version of LANCEOLATE. Our study positions strigolactones in the context of the flowering regulation network in a model crop species.

Determining Eastern Red Cedar Biochar Soilless-Media Supplementation Rates for Potted Geranium and Petunia Production

The use of biochar in soilless media is becoming more common in greenhouse production. This study was conducted to evaluate Eastern red cedar biochar as a soilless-media supplement for the growth of geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.) and petunia (Petunia sp. J.) as potted plants in greenhousese. Eastern red cedar biomass was produced at three different temperature ranges 300–350 °C, 400–450 °C, and 500–550 °C and applied at 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% v/v to a soilless media plus a control. Additionally, Eastern red cedar (ERC) bark was also applied at 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% v/v to a soilless media. The growth characteristics of the plants along with the physical and nutrient properties of the growth media were recorded. For physical properties, 100% soilless media had the greatest bulk density, 60% biochar at 400–450 °C showed the greatest total porosity, and 60% ERC bark showed the greatest air porosity. For geranium, 15% biochar at 500–550 °C showed the greatest height, water use efficiency, and shoot dry weight, while 15% biochar at 300–350 °C showed the greatest width. The greatest number of flowers was at 45% biochar at 500–550 °C. For petunia, 15% biochar at 300–350 °C showed the greatest height, and 15% biochar at 500–550 °C showed the greatest width. The greatest number of flowers and flower diameter was achieved with 100% soilless media. The 15% biochar at 500–550 °C had the greatest shoot dry weight and water use efficiency, and 60% biochar at 400–450 °C had the greatest root dry weight. Biochar treatment outperforms the ERC bark treatment for both species. Within biochar treatment, 15% biochar outperforms dry biomass, while for flowering, 100% soilless media performs best for petunia, and biochar performs best at less than 45% for geranium.

Developmental patterns of flowers and pods and the effect on seed number in French serradella (Ornithopus sativus) and yellow serradella (Ornithopus compressus) cultivars

Context Reliable seed production is a key requirement for successful year-on-year regeneration of annual pasture legumes. Aims The study aims were to investigate the developmental patterns of flowers and pods and the effect on seed number among cultivars of French (Ornithopus sativus Brot.) and yellow serradella (O. compressus L.); and to assess the effects of early flower loss. Methods Four cultivars of each species were grown in a glasshouse under non-limiting growth conditions. Date of flowering and numbers of flowers, pods and seeds were assessed for up to 20 reproductive nodes on two stem axes per plant (n = 5 plants). A flower removal treatment was imposed to assess whether early flower loss affected flower and/or pod production. Key results Flowering in the serradellas was indeterminate, but for all cultivars there was a peak period of flower and pod production, with the timing and duration of the peak period differing among cultivars. Peak flowering occurred primarily because the proportion of plants flowering began to decline, but the number of flowers per reproductive node and the number of pods formed per node also declined with time. Compensation for early flower loss was observed for most cultivars because of a longer duration of pod formation and/or greater numbers of pods developed on higher reproductive nodes. Conclusions This study demonstrated that there is diversity in the patterns of flowering and podding and number of seeds initiated among serradellas. Implications Diversity in flowering and podding patterns combined with a capacity to compensate for early flower loss may be used to develop serradellas better able to cope with environmental stressors (frost, drought, heat) experienced during the flowering window.

Mitigating Fruit Cracking and Premature Dropping in Bael (Aegle marmelos) cv. NB-9 under Subtropical Conditions: Evaluating the Effects of Bio-formulations and Boric Acid

The present investigation entitled “Mitigating Fruit Cracking and Premature Dropping in Bael (Aegle marmelos) cv. NB-9 under Subtropical Conditions: Evaluating the Effects of Bio-formulations and Boric Acid” was carried out during the year 2022-2023 at Main Experimental Station, Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture & Forestry, A.N.D.U.A.&T., Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India (Lat 26.540849° Long 81.830421°). Application of various bio-formulations and boric acid with eco-friendly materials to study the various vegetative properties, cracking, fruit drop and effect on the vegetative growth of fruit. The experiment was laid down in randomized block design (RBD) with (12) treatments and (03) replications. The experiment consists of 12 treatments including control, T1 (Control), T2 (FYM 50 Kg), T3 (FYM 100 Kg), T4 (Boric acid 200g), T5 (Boric acid 400g), T6 (Biofertilizer 250g/plant [100g Azotobacter + 100g Biovita + 50g PSB]), T7 (FYM 50Kg + Boric acid 200g), T8 (FYM 50Kg + Boric acid 400g), T9 (FYM 50Kg +Biofertilizer 250g/plant [100g Azotobacter + 100g Biovita + 50g PSB]), T10 (FYM 100Kg + Boric acid 200g), T11 (FYM 100 Kg + Boric acid 400g) and T12 (FYM 100Kg +Biofertilizer 250g/plant [100g Azotobacter + 100g Biovita + 50g PSB]) was used for this study. The results revealed that treatment T7 outperformed the rest with minimum fruit cracking (1.53%), fruit drop (76.20%), the maximum number of flowers per plant (171.19), day-to-flowering (31.38) and yield (181.69 q/ha) was most effective in a vegetative quality and yield point of view. Thus, the treatment combination T7 is therefore recommended for application to Bael trees in subtropical conditions to obtain high yields with better quality fruits.

EFFECT OF HUMIC ACID AND MAXIGROW (ORGANIC FERTILIZER) ON GROWTH, FLOWERING AND YIELD OF SNAKE CUCUMBER (CUCUMIS MELO. L)

ABSTRACT: A field trial was implemented at the research center field at general directorate of agriculture, Dohuk Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan region in summer season of (2022-2023) to find out the impact of foliar application of humic acid at three levels (0, 2, and 4) ml L-1 and Maxigrow (an organic fertilizer) with three levels (0, 1, and 2) ml L-1 and their combinations on outgrowth, flowering and harvest of local snake cucumber. The experiment was organized following a randomized complete block design (RCBD) including three replicates. The data displayed that the individual dose of humic acid at (4) ml.L-1 significantly enhanced foliage traits [number of branches, stem diameter (cm), Leaf area (cm2), plant fresh weight (g), and chlorophyll content (SPAD)] as well as increased flowering characters [number of flowers after 30 days and number of flowers after 40 days] and yielded components [fruit length (cm), fruit diameter (cm), and total yield (ton.ha-1)]. The same profound effect was exhibited by the singular dose of Maxigrow at concentration (2) ml.L-1. However, the highest mean values were produced from humic acid at concentration (4) ml.L-1 in combination with Maxigrow at concentration (2) ml.L-1 in comparison with control. The increased level of humic acid and Maxigrow is advised for organic productivity of local snake cucumber.

Growth and yield response of Tanjung II and Unpad CB2 red chili varieties grown in the medium land

Red chili is an important commodity that is daily needed by the community. Non-central chili areas often experience deficits due to the high consumption volume and low productivity of chili peppers. To increase the productivity of chili in non-central areas, expand it in the medium land. This study aims to determine the productivity of two introduced chili varieties in the medium land whose adaptation areas came from lowland and highland areas. This study was analyzed using an independent sample T-test at a significant level of 5%. The results of the data analysis showed that the Tanjung II variety significantly influenced the parameters of stem diameter and weight of the fruit. Meanwhile, the Unpad CB2 variety significantly influences the parameters of plant height, number of leaves, number of flowers, number of fruits, and fruit set. However, both varieties have no noticeable effect on the weight parameters of the cropping fruit and potential yield in hectares. The Tanjung II variety experienced a decrease in yield by 54.58%, while the Unpad CB2 variety was 53.56%.

Facile synthesis of flower-like NiCo/NiO–CoO surrounded by N-doped porous carbon derived from covalent organic framework for aqueous asymmetric supercapacitor

The persisting quest for improving charge density, electronic conductivity and cyclic stability of the electrode material in supercapacitor (SC) applications still demands intensive research and advancements. This study also aims the aforementioned pursuit with the construction of hybrid supercapacitor using mixed metal oxides with the incorporation of metal and supported with porous carbon to improve the charge density, electrical conductivity and cyclic stability, respectively. A covalent organic framework (COF) was synthesized and doped with nickel (Ni2+) and cobalt (Co2+) ions followed by carbonization at 1000 °C for 3 h to generate NiCo/NiO–CoO surrounded N-doped porous carbon (NPC) framework. The X-ray diffraction reveals that nickel considerably impacts the crystallinity of NiCo/NiO–CoO and the Raman spectroscopy revealed that the NiCo/NiO-CoO-NPC with an equal molar ratio of Ni2+ and Co2+ ions (NiCo/NiO-CoO-NPC-2) offered the highest degree of graphitization. The electron microscopic images showed the formation of flower-like morphology of NiCo/NiO-CoO-NPC-2 with a size of 250 nm and the greater number of flowers on NPC's surface could augment the electrochemical activity of the composite material. The NiCo/NiO–CoO-NPC-2 offered an attractive specific capacitance (Cs) of 845 F g−1 @ 1 A g−1 and preserves 93% capacity retention @ 10 A g−1 after 6000 charge-discharge cycles while exploited in SC application. The metal-free COF carbonized at 900 °C (CCOF-900) is utilized as the negative electrode with a Cs of 286 F g−1 @ 1 A g−1 for the construction of an asymmetric supercapacitor device and the NiCo/NiO-CoO-NPC-2//CCOF-900 device delivered efficient energy of 54 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 633 W kg−1.

Germination and Initial Development of Calendula Officinallis as a Function of Seed Treatment with Promoter Bacteria

Objective: The study aims to evaluate the agronomic efficiency of different dosages and modes of application of inoculants based on Bacillus subtilis, Azospirillum brasilense, and Pseudomonas fluorescens in marigold plants, focusing on seed germination aspects and initial plant development.   Method: The research was conducted in two stages, including seed germination tests in the laboratory and evaluation of plant development in the field. Treatments were applied at different dosages and modes of application, with appropriate experimental design and statistical analysis of the data.   Research results and discussions: The results demonstrate that inoculation with growth-promoting microorganisms positively influenced the shoot length, root length, number of flowers, and fresh flower mass of marigold plants. Application of Bacillus subtilis yielded the best results in various variables, while the combination of seed treatment and foliar application provided the best results in fresh and dry root mass. The interaction between growth promoters and application modes also influenced the chlorophyll content of the plant leaves.   Research implications: The results indicate that inoculation with the studied microorganisms may be a viable alternative to enhance the agronomic performance of marigold, providing benefits such as increased fresh flower mass, flower quantity, and root length. This suggests the potential of these microorganisms as biological agents for plant growth promotion.   Originality/Value: This study contributes to the understanding of the agronomic effectiveness of different growth-promoting microorganisms in marigold plants, highlighting the importance of bacterial inoculation in plant development and providing insights for more sustainable agricultural practices.

Transcription factors HB21/40/53 trigger inflorescence arrest through abscisic acid accumulation at the end of flowering.

Flowers, and hence, fruits and seeds, are produced by the activity of the inflorescence meristem after the floral transition. In plants with indeterminate inflorescences the final number of flowers produced by the inflorescence meristem is determined by the length of the flowering period, which ends with inflorescence arrest. Inflorescence arrest depends on many different factors, such as the presence of seeds, the influence of the environment, or endogenous factors such as phytohormone levels and age, which modulate inflorescence meristem activity. The FRUITFULL-APETALA2 (FUL-AP2) pathway plays a major role in regulating the end of flowering, likely integrating both endogenous cues and those related to seed formation. Among AP2 targets, HOMEOBOX PROTEIN21 (HB21) has been identified as a putative mediator of AP2 function in the control of inflorescence arrest. HB21 is a homeodomain leucine zipper transcription factor involved in establishing axillary bud dormancy. Here we characterized the role of HB21 in the control of the inflorescence arrest at the end of flowering in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). HB21, together with HB40 and HB53, are upregulated in the inflorescence apex at the end of flowering, promoting floral bud arrest. We also show that abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation occurs in the inflorescence apex in an HB-dependent manner. Our work suggests a physiological role of ABA in floral bud arrest at the end of flowering, pointing to ABA as a regulator of inflorescence arrest downstream of the HB21/40/53 genes.

Ecological factors and morphological traits of Coffea Liberia Hiern in Kalipuro District, Banyuwangi Regency

This study aimed to analyze the ecological factors and morphological traits of Liberica coffee in Kalipuro District, Banyuwangi Regency. Ecological and morphological factors were measured, and observations were recorded accordingly. The observation of significant morphological characters has been thoroughly conducted The observed ecological factors were microclimate factors, including altitude, air temperature, humidity, light intensity, rainfall rate, soil pH, soil temperature, and soil moisture. The Paleontological Statistics (PAST) program was used to perform multivariate analysis to group liberica coffee variants based on morphological traits and physical factors of the plantation. The study found that physical environmental factors had a relatively significant influence on morphological variation in each population. The light intensity and relative humidity were the physical environmental factors related to morphological traits, such as leaf shape index, number of flowers per inflorescence, and leaf surface index based on principal component analysis (PCA). Unstable weather conditions can influence environmental factors, which, in turn, can profoundly impact morphological characteristics, specifically the flowering season. The study revealed a statistically significant correlation between light intensity and the number of flowers per inflorescence.

Composted Green Waste as a Peat Substitute in Growing Media for Vinca (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don) and Zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.)

The purpose of this work was to explore the feasibility of replacing all or part of peat with composted green waste (CGW) for vinca (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don) and zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) cultivation. Seven different growing media were prepared as follows (volume/volume): T1, 100% CGW; T2, 80% CGW + 20% peat; T3, 60% CGW + 40% peat; T4, 50% CGW + 50% peat; T5, 40% CGW + 60% peat; T6, 20% CGW + 80% peat; and T7, 100% peat. In the course of the experiment, the physicochemical properties of the seven media were analyzed, and the growth of vinca and zinnia was determined. Studies showed that replacing peat completely or partially with CGW could significantly enhance the nutrient content, bulk density, water-holding capacity, total porosity, aeration porosity, water-holding porosity, organic matter, pH, and electrical conductivity of growing media. In comparison with what observed with T7 (control), shoot fresh weight (SFW), shoot dry weight (SDW), root fresh weight (RFW), root dry weight (RDW), plant height (HP), root length (RL), flower number (FN), total chlorophyll, and the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids in the leaves of vinca cultivated under T5 conditions increased by 36%, 34%, 84%, 27%, 34%, 25%, 157%, 62%, 60%, and 33%, respectively; SFW, SDW, RFW, RDW, HP, RL, FN, total chlorophylls, and the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids in the leaves of zinnia increased by 341%, 296%, 365%, 302%, 206%, 93%, 180%, 56%, 49%, 67%, 110%, respectively.

PERTUMBUHAN DAN PERODUKSI MELON ( Cucumis melo L) TERHADAP PEMBERIAN PUPUK HAYATI DAN PEMANGKASAN BUAH

This study used a completely randomized design (CRD), factorial with 2 intervention factors: M0 = 0 g/tree, M1 = 40 g/tree, M2 = 80 /tree. The second factor of fruit pruning (P), P0 = no size, P1 = remaining 1 fruit, P2 = remaining two fruits. This study was organized according to a 3x3 factorial design. Treatments were repeated three times and resulted in 27 experiments. The parameters observed included: Tree height, number of leaves, number of flowers, fruit weight, fruit diameter. Observation of plant growth will be done within 7 days after planting. Analysis using variance fingerprints. If there are significant differences between treatments, do the BNJ test at the 5% level. From the results of the analysis of variance in the table above shows that the application of organic fertilizer does not give a real effect on the height of the tree at the age of 70 hst, the number of leaves, fruit weight and diameter. Pruning treatment gives a real effect on the parameters of plant height after 70 days of planting, but does not give a real effect on the number of leaves, fruit weight and diameter

Germination and Initial Development of Calendula Officinallis as a Function of Seed Treatment with Promoter Bacteria

Objective: The study aims to evaluate the agronomic efficiency of different dosages and modes of application of inoculants based on Bacillus subtilis, Azospirillum brasilense, and Pseudomonas fluorescens in marigold plants, focusing on seed germination aspects and initial plant development.   Method: The research was conducted in two stages, including seed germination tests in the laboratory and evaluation of plant development in the field. Treatments were applied at different dosages and modes of application, with appropriate experimental design and statistical analysis of the data.   Research results and discussions: The results demonstrate that inoculation with growth-promoting microorganisms positively influenced the shoot length, root length, number of flowers, and fresh flower mass of marigold plants. Application of Bacillus subtilis yielded the best results in various variables, while the combination of seed treatment and foliar application provided the best results in fresh and dry root mass. The interaction between growth promoters and application modes also influenced the chlorophyll content of the plant leaves.   Research implications: The results indicate that inoculation with the studied microorganisms may be a viable alternative to enhance the agronomic performance of marigold, providing benefits such as increased fresh flower mass, flower quantity, and root length. This suggests the potential of these microorganisms as biological agents for plant growth promotion.   Originality/Value: This study contributes to the understanding of the agronomic effectiveness of different growth-promoting microorganisms in marigold plants, highlighting the importance of bacterial inoculation in plant development and providing insights for more sustainable agricultural practices.

Pruning techniques affect flowering, fruiting, yield and fruit biochemical traits in guava under transitory sub-tropical conditions

Production of quality fruits in the dry and low humid October–May period has been a challenge in the tropics and sub-tropics having wide weather fluctuations throughout the year. Henceforth, the research aimed at investigating the seasonal variations in vegetative developments as well as flowering, fruiting, yield, and fruit quality of guava emphasizing the off-seasonality by pruning 0 cm (control), 15 cm, 30 cm, and 45 cm from shoot-tip, once a year at spring (early March), monsoon (early June) and autumn (early September) under such atmospheric implications. Yearly and quarterly documentation at wet (June–August and September–November) and dry (December–February and March–May) seasons revealed that pruning in spring and autumn exhibited statistical parity for higher yearly yield of 31.71 kg and 31.58 kg plant−1, respectively. Moreover, spring pruning had maximum yield in the wet season (23.94 kg plant−1), while autumn pruning governed the dry season production (18.11 kg plant−1) having a notable wet period yield (13.47 kg plant−1). Considering the yearly and quarterly in March–May and December–February harvests, autumn pruning exhibited statistical supremacy for total soluble solids, titratable acidity, total sugar, vitamin C, and specific gravity. However, pruning time didn't influence the fruit physiochemical traits at the June–August and September–November quarters producing fruits of inferior quality compared to those of March–May and December–February harvests. On the other hand, pruning lengths of 30 cm and 45 cm demonstrated statistical consistency for auspicious vegetative, reproductive and fruit biochemical properties. Meanwhile, 30 cm pruning produced maximum number of flowers (224.71 plant−1) and fruits (155.89 plant−1), consequently the highest yield (38.38 kg plant−1). Treatment interactions too ascertained that off-season production of superior quality guava can be enhanced by 30 cm shoot-tip pruning in autumn without compromising the year-round harvests.

Effect of Photoperiod Duration on Flower Bud Differentiation and Related Gene Expression in Bougainvillea glabra 'Sao Paulo'.

Environmental conditions, such as photoperiod, affect the developmental response of plants; thus, plants have evolved molecular mechanisms to adapt to changes in photoperiod. In Bougainvillea spp., the mechanism of flower formation underlying flowering control techniques remains poorly understood, and the physiological changes that occur during flower bud formation and the expression of related genes are not yet fully understood. In this study, we induced flowering of potted Bougainvillea glabra 'Sao Paulo' plants under light-control treatments and analyzed their effects on flowering time, number of flower buds, flowering quality, as well as quality of flower formation, which was analyzed using transcriptome sequencing. Light-control treatment effectively induced the rapid formation of flower buds and early flowering in B. glabra 'Sao Paulo', with the time of flower bud formation being 119 days earlier and the flowering period extended six days longer than those of the control plants. The light-control treatment caused the bracts to become smaller and lighter in color, while the number of flowers increased, and the neatness of flowering improved. Transcriptome sequencing of the apical buds identified 1235 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to the pathways of environmental adaptation, biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites, glycan biosynthesis and metabolism, and energy metabolism. DEGs related to gibberellin metabolism were analyzed, wherein five DEGs were identified between the control and treatment groups. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the gibberellin regulatory pathway is linked to flowering. Specifically, GA and GID1 levels increased during this process, enhancing DELLA protein degradation. However, decreasing this protein's binding to CO did not halt FT upregulation, thereby advancing the flowering of B. glabra 'Sao Paulo'. The findings of our study have implications for future research on photoperiod and its role in controlling flowering timing of Bougainvillea spp.

Meta-analyses of reproductive changes in angiosperm populations in response to elevation reveal a lack of global patterns.

Elevation is a major factor shaping plant populations on a global scale. At the same time, reproductive traits play a major role in plant fitness. With increasing altitude and increasingly harsh conditions, decreases in pollinator visitation rates, sexual investment, seed set, and heterozygosity (due to increased selfing) are expected. In response, selection and/or phenotypic plasticity could lead to an increase in plants' floral displays to increase their attractiveness to pollinators and compensates for the negative fitness impacts of reduced pollinator activity. A large body of literature tests these hypotheses at the among-species level, but empirical evidence at the population level (i.e., wihin-species), where adaptive change may occur, is still limited to species-specific studies. Unravelling the global patterns of change in the reproductive traits, flower visitation rates and heterozygosity of plant populations across variable environmental conditions, especially climate can help us to understand how species are able to cope with shifting conditions associated with global change, particularly in mountains. Here, we used meta-analytic approaches to assess the reproductive changes of plant populations in response to elevation on a global scale. We used a data set with 243 paired populations of plants at 'lower' and 'higher' elevations, spanning an elevation range of 0-4380 m asl and taken from 121 angiosperm species and 115 published studies. We analyzed changes in flower number, size and longevity, pollen production, flower visitation rate, seed set and expected heterozygosity.We then tested whether the observed patterns for each trait were dependent upon plant phylogeny and various ecogeographical factors and species traits. We found no evidence of elevation having a global effect on the reproductive traits of angiosperm populations. This null global pattern was not affected by geograph or phylogenetics. Our results suggest that changes in reproductive traits, flower visitation rates, and heterozygosity in plant populations across elevations are specific to each species and ecosystem. Hence, macroevolutionary (across species) and macroecological patterns of elevation of plant reproduction reported previously are apparently not simply the outcome of microevolutionary changes (within species). This apparent specificity of response across plant species poses difficulties in predicting the effects of global changes and, specifically, climatic changes, on the fate of plant species, populations, and communities.

Fields of flowers with few strikes: how oligolectic bees manage their foraging behavior on Calibrachoa elegans (Solanaceae).

In specialized plant-pollinator associations, partners may exhibit adaptive traits, which favor the maintenance of the interaction. The association between Calibrachoa elegans (Solanaceae) and its oligolectic bee pollinator, Hexantheda missionica (Colletidae), is mutualistic and forms a narrowly specialized pollination system. Flowers of C. elegans are pollinated exclusively by this bee species, and the bees restrict their pollen resources to this plant species. The pollen presentation schedules of C. elegans were evaluated at the population level to test the hypothesis that H. missionica females adjust their foraging behavior to the resource offering regime of C. elegans plants. For this, the number of new flowers and anthers opened per hour (as a proxy for pollen offering) was determined, and pollen advertisement was correlated with the frequency of flower visits during the day. Preferences of female bees for flowers of different stages were also investigated, and their efficiency as pollinators was evaluated. Pollen offering by C. elegans was found to be partitioned throughout the day through scattered flower openings. Females of H. missionica indeed adjusted their foraging activity to the most profitable periods of pollen availability. The females preferred new, pollen-rich flowers over old ones and gathered pollen and nectar selectively according to flower age. Such behaviors must optimize female bee foraging efficiency on flowers. Female bees set 93% of fruit after a single visit. These findings guarantee their importance as pollinators and the persistence of the specialized plant-pollinator association.

Effects of Progressive Drought Stress on the Growth, Ornamental Values, and Physiological Properties of Begonia semperflorens

Water is one of the most important elements affecting the growth of ornamental plants. To investigate the effects of drought stress on the growth, ornamental values, and physiological properties of Begonia semperflorens, watering treatments with 250 mL (control check, CK), 200 mL (extremely light drought, ELD), 150 mL (light drought, LD), 100 mL (moderate drought, MD), 50 mL (severe drought, SD), and 25 mL (extremely severe drought, ESD) on the B. semperflorens variety “Chao Ao” were performed in this study. As a result, compared to the control (CK), the number of flowers, leaves, and branches, leaf size, plant height, crown diameter, as well as water content, transpiration rate, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2 concentration, and chlorophyll content in leaves decreased, followed by an increased amount of drought stress. The contents of the osmotic adjustment substances, such as soluble sugar, soluble protein, proline, and betaine, were increased under drought stress. Indicators related to antioxidant activities, such as SOD activity, increased and then decreased. The POD activity, CAT activity, MDA content, and plasma membrane permeability of B. semperflorens were higher under increased drought stress than in the control condition. The APX activity decreased and then increased under drought stress. In conclusion, B. semperflorens responds to drought stress by increasing osmotic adjustment substances and antioxidant activities and reducing the water loss, growth potential, and photosynthetic rate. The correlation analysis showed that, except for APX, the drought resistance coefficients of 23 other indexes were correlated in different degrees. Therefore, this study suggests that B. semperflorens has a strong drought resistance ability, retaining high ornamental values in conditions of moderate drought stress, and can still survive under extremely high drought stress.

Evaluation of homeopathic treatments for the control of moniliasis (Moniliophthora roreri Samson & Benny), in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)

Objective: To evaluate low- and high-dilution homeopathic products in the incidence of Moniliophthora roreri in cacao plants. Design/Methodology/Approach: The plantation was studied using a randomized block design with three repetitions and six treatments: Homeopathic nosode 12C and 200C, Cacao homeopathic combination remedy 12C and 200C, water control, and control sample, with applications every 15 days. The studied variables were: Number of flowers, number of healthy and diseased cherelles, number of healthy and diseased pods, ripe pod weight, fresh grain weight, and leaf color. Results: A significant difference was observed in the number of flowers with Cacao combined remedy 200C during November-December 2018. A significant difference was observed in leaf color with Cacao combined remedy 200C during October 2018-January 2019 and with Cacao combine remedy 12C in October 2018. No significant difference was found in treatments for number of healthy and diseased cherelles, number of healthy and diseased pods, ripe pod weight, and fresh grain weight. Study limitations/Implications: The treatment application period was short. In order to obtain more convincing results, a one-year application period prior to evaluation is suggested. Findings/Conclusions: The Cacao combined remedy 200C had a positive effect on the number of flowers during the period in which flowering decreases due to environmental conditions and on leaf greenness during four consecutive months of evaluation. Cacao homeopathic combination remedy 12C showed a significant difference for the latter variable only in October 2018. This suggests that the low-dose homeopathic medication and a high centesimal potency promotes a better response of the cacao plant to an acute disease such as moniliasis.

Floral attractants and rewards to pollinators in Mangifera indica L.

Floral attractants and rewards are essential in plant-pollinator interaction, pollen transfer to and from the flowers, and hence in crop production. In this trial, we determined the attractants and rewards of mango ‘Osteen’ cultivated under a plastic greenhouse. The attractants analyzed were inflorescence architecture and compactness, flower number, size and color patterns. Rewards determined were pollen quantity and its nutritious value and nectar volume and composition. The results show that mango forms panicles with more staminate than hermaphrodite flowers, but the latter are of higher size, more exposed to pollinator activity, and preferentially located in a better-nurtured position within the inflorescence. Pollen produced by staminate and hermaphrodite flowers was similar in quantity and quality. On the contrary, hermaphrodite flowers produced more nectar, likely because of the larger size of their nectary disks. Pollen and nectar present 17 and 22 metabolites, respectively, including carbohydrates, amino acids, and organic acids. Our study provides, for the first time, solid information about the floral attractiveness and rewards of mango cultivated under plastic greenhouses. This will help to understand the possible adaptations required for pollinating this crop under protected cultivation.